In the Pacific Northwest there is a great controversy encompassing the northern spotted owl. This species is being driven to extinction by man’s encroachment. The northern spotted owl depends upon old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest for habitat. Loss of habitat creates impenetrable barriers to recovery for many rare species. A law protecting rare plant and animal species (the Endangered Species Act, ESA) was created and signed into law by President Nixon in 1973 (Helvarg 1). The ESA is enforced and implemented by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Their biologists have the unique task of surveying and categorizing plant, vertebrate, and some insect species into lists for further study. After developing a list of potentially threatened species, it is the task of biologists to count individuals of each species and determine whether there is an imminent threat of extinction. After extensive surveys, the northern spotted owl was added to the list of threatened species in 1990. The loss of the owl’s old-growth forest habitat was cited as the main reason for its listing. The northern spotted owl is endangered by logging and needs protection.

The conifer forests of the Pacific Northwest are home to the spotted owl and a large number of logging companies. The forests, that these birds inhabit, have historically propelled the economy of the northwestern United States (Beuter 14). The timber industry has extensive logging operations in all forested areas of the west. The health of western forests has reached a critical stage, as many areas are almost completely logged out. In the past thirty years more than ninety percent of the North American old-growth conifer forests have been cut. The highest rate renewable forests can be used without reducing their available supply is called sustained yield (Miller 12). Harvesting for immediate financial gain without practicing sustained yield techniques is causing the degradation of the Pacific Northwest’s economy, culture, and ecosystem.

A frenzy of media, politicians, and timber industry officials often claim that the spotted owl controversy is a “jobs versus owls issue” (Chadwick 26).  This rhetoric offers a simplistic viewpoint that does not paint an accurate picture of the complexities of the problem. Unfortunately, most timber companies want maximum yield at the lowest cost. Left to their own devices, the industry would clear-cut every stand of forest for short-term profit. Long term sustainable yield forestry protects industry, wildlife, and all other resources as well.

It is true that the economy of the Pacific Northwest does rely heavily on the timber industry, but contrary to popular opinion, logging is not the only sector of commerce in the region. The timber industry’s exploitation of natural resources has negatively impacted some very productive enterprises. For example, fisheries rely on clear, silt-free streams. The old-growth ecosystem is responsible for filtering water and providing shade for spawning salmon and trout. Logging in watersheds causes heavy siltation in streams and rivers, negatively impacting spawning beds. Another problem is caused when mountainsides are denuded of vegetation. The stripped slopes do not absorb runoff from storms, resulting in erosion and flooding downslope. In the spring of 1996, Oregon suffered millions of dollars in flood damage that was directly linked to the loss of protective watershed (Seideman 71).

The economic gain for the timber industry is short term profit at a tremendous environmental expense. Ninety percent of the Pacific Northwest old-growth rain forest has already been harvested (Gore 121). During the early 1980’s, the timber industry harvested 280 times faster than the forest could regenerate. By the mid ‘80’s, the harvest had been reduced by thirty-five percent (Miller 420). The reduced acreage available for harvest was due to over-cutting and resulted in large job layoffs. Forest workers were manipulated by the big timber companies into believing that the spotted owl was the only reason for mill closings and wilderness expansion (Foreman 32). In fact, spotted owl restrictions did not go into effect until three years after these layoffs (Miller 421). Other factors affecting wood products employment included the automation of many mills and the exportation of logs overseas for processing (Foreman 133). The costs of logging are not only paid by the industry but by American citizens as well.

In National forests, taxpayers subsidize all timber sales. How United States taxpayers subsidize the timber industry is discussed in detail in Vice-president Al Gore’s book, Earth in the Balance. Logging roads are built to facilitate clear-cutting of public lands, and timber companies pay the government rates far below market prices. “This enormous taxpayer subsidy for the deforestation of public land contributes to both the [federal] budget deficit and an ecological tragedy” (121). The irony of the situation is that once the remaining ten percent of the ecosystem is timbered out, jobs will disappear permanently. The job issue is one created with false hope. If the timber companies continue the status quo, the industry will die with the forest. The industry must moderate its activity in order to survive. Environmentalists support sustained use of forests. Most live in wood houses and are realistic about logging. They do not oppose the use of wood products, but want to limit the cut to sustain the wildlife and the economy. By practicing new forestry techniques along with tree farming, the timber industry will permit timber supplies to last into future generations.

There are several methods of harvesting timber. Some methods of logging are less harmful to forests than others. Selective cutting targets individual trees while leaving most standing and undamaged. Shelterwood cutting is the process of removing all mature trees over a period of up to ten years. Seed tree cutting is a technique wherein all of the trees in a given area are felled at the same time, except a few mature seed bearing trees which are left to regenerate the area. Clear-cutting involves removing all of the trees at the same time, leaving the area devoid of brush, trees, and wildlife (Miller 414-16). While clear-cutting generates the greatest profits for the timber industry and is by far the most damaging method of harvesting trees. There is a tendency among foresters to be overly optimistic in their projections about regeneration after clear-cuts. Unfortunately, evidence does not back up these claims (Robinson 121).

A clear cut not only endangers the spotted owl and other wildlife, but all other forest resources as well. Selective cutting is the most expensive method of logging yet it is the most sustainable method of harvest. Sustained yield forestry is the only reasonable method to practice if a legacy for future foresters and forest users is desired. Maintaining the productivity of the forests and retaining old-growth has other benefits.

New industries are attracted by clean, clear waters filtered by old-growth forests. The economy of the Pacific Northwest is undergoing rapid change. Recently Oregon’s economy suffered a blow with the loss of fifteen thousand jobs in the timber industry. Massive growth in  new high tech and other cottage industries added twenty thousand jobs during the same period, creating positive growth (Egan A1). The economic damage forecast by the lock-up of federal forests has not occurred. Reduced logging has stimulated recreation and allowed eco-tourism to blossom. Eco-tourism alone added four billion dollars to Oregon’s economy in 1995 (Seideman 70). New and promising resources are being found in ancient forests.

An important social benefit derived from maintaining the old-growth ecosystems pertains to the Pacific yew tree. This tree has been in the news recently because of the drug Taxol is manufactured from its bark. Taxol has shown promise as a miracle cure for ovarian cancer. The timber industry has considered the yew a useless weed tree for years. In the past, after marketable conifer trees had been harvested, the yew and other non-merchantable trees and brush were burned as waste. Now that the yew is marketable, an effort is being made to save it. Taxol is only found in the bark of 200-year-old yew trees (Helvarg 3). Ancient forests contain many valuable resources for humans and wildlife.

Certain species of plants and animals found in old-growth are exceptionally specialized.  A small seabird, the Marbled Murrelet, nests hundreds of feet up in old-growth coastal redwoods. Many species are so unusual or secretive that biologists have a difficult time detecting them to study. The Marbled Murrelet and the spotted owl are just two species that require ancient forests. Old-growth is a considered a nonrenewable resource. Once the forest is depleted, it will take many generations and substantial labor to regenerate the ecosystem. One conifer in old-growth forests, the Douglas fir, can live one thousand years. Destruction of these resources affects many interconnected species. A symbiotic relationship between firs, fungi, and squirrels help to maintain the forest’s ability to absorb water and nutrients. Clear-cuts create unnatural ecosystems in which little functions naturally. The fungus dies when it is exposed to the sun’s warm rays. Without fungus present, the trees die and the watershed is destroyed. The climate changes and remaining trees are more susceptible to disease, drying, and wind damage (Little 135-37). Many varieties of trees are found in northwestern forests.

The well-established old-growth forest contains redwoods, cedars, Douglas fir, hemlock, or spruce. These forests have at least eight big trees per acre that are older than 300 years and the trees are more than forty inches in diameter at a height of four feet off the ground (Thomas 190). Only 4.3 million acres of our old-growth forests remain, and about one-third of it is protected in designated national wilderness areas and in parks. The loss of the old-growth Douglas fir is similar to the loss of the giant redwoods, originally the greatest old-growth forest on earth. Roadside parks contain the remnant four percent of the giant redwoods still standing. Coastal redwoods are unique to the rainforests of the Pacific Northwest.

There are two types of rain forests, tropical and temperate. The Pacific Northwest contains the much rarer temperate rain forest. Over 100 inches of rain and snow can fall in some parts of the forest every year. The rain forest affects the regional and global climates. A mid 1980’s clear-cut on the Oregon coast demonstrates how rapidly the climate can change. Before logging the area had a typical rain forest precipitation. During the day, the moisture would evaporate from the forest and wind would draw the moist air out over the ocean. The ocean currents would then send fog over the forest. The two different temperatures of moisture-laden air would collide and send rain spilling back into the forest. After the clearcut, this cycle was destroyed. The sun reached the soil for the first time, causing deep drying of the earth. Most of the soil’s moisture evaporated. The loss of the evaporation cycle caused the fog to retreat. With no fog and the soil baked dry, the climate was forever altered, and the forest ecosystem was unable to regenerate (Postlethwait 756). This change in climate is regional, but the effect of deforestation also causes global changes in atmospheric gases.

Old-growth trees also store tremendous amounts of carbon. Carbon dioxide stays locked in forests and keeps atmospheric gases in balance. When released to the atmosphere carbon dioxide is a major contributor to global warming. When the trees are cut, and then burned, the greenhouse effect is heightened by the release of this gas (Little 141). The balance of atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide has been maintained for millions of years. Some trees of the ancient forests have stood since Leif Ericksson first explored the coast of North America. The old-growth ecosystem is an endangered species. The forest and all of its inhabitants are irreplaceable. The spotted owl is only one of the many precious resources that may disappear forever if we do not learn to manage our forests more responsibly. Forest products are harvested on both private and public land.

The preservation of old-growth yields homes for wildlife and recreational opportunity for humans. While the debate over the forests of the northwestern United States rages, these unique resources continue to disappear. The destruction of most of the old-growth timber has the timber industry suggesting that the trees in the national parks should be harvested (Robinson 81). When the spotted owl was declared a threatened species, a court injunction halted most timber sales in national forests where old-growth firs are found (Helvarg 2). A disturbing trend is happening with the temporary ban on public logging; private old-growth is being cut sixty-five times more rapidly than before the prohibition on harvesting in spotted owl habitat (Beuter 14). When humans have destroyed ninety percent of any resource, all species are imperiled, and conservation must become a priority. The entire ancient forest needs protection, not just the public lands. The problems of the northern spotted owl illustrate why forests need to be managed with a clear focus on ecosystem values.

Northern spotted owls have a round face and distinctive, dark brown eyes. The overall color of their feathers is chestnut brown, and their tail feathers appear barred with lighter brown and white (Ehrlich 294). Northern spotted owls are extremely well camouflaged. They live in old-growth coastal forests from British Columbia to Northern California and are exceptionally curious and friendly (Barrett 53). Studies in Oregon show that the owls’ population declined by a third between 1976 and 1987. The population of northern spotted owls is estimated at only 2,000 to 3,000 pairs remaining in North America (Miller 420). Each pair requires a range of 4,000 to 9,000 acres for hunting and foraging and they prefer to nest only in the broken tops of dead old-growth firs. Spotted owls nest in deep canyons of temperate rain forests. They hunt among the heavy branches of uneven aged trees, and find their prey of wood mice most abundant in the deep forest litter. They are excellent flyers in the cluttered forest. Their chief enemy, the great horned owl, cannot fly through the clutter (Shanks 56). Fragmentation of forests causes predators to move in and kill the spotted owl.  When the forest is harvested in fragments, it creates openings for the great horned owl to attack and kill the spotted owl.

I have experienced the terror of a territorial great horned owl first hand. While I was conducting a survey of spotted owls in the Sequoia National Forest, a great horned owl attempted to attack me while I imitated a spotted owl call. Swiftly and silently it flew towards my head. Out of the corner of my eye I saw outstretched talons. I dived to the pavement, narrowly saving my scalp. An actual spotted owl would have been dinner for that great horned owl. The method I used to call spotted owls is the easiest way for the biologist to determine if the area is inhabited by owls.

Imitating the spotted owl call is a way people—friendly or antagonistic—can easily find owls in any area. A sad fact is that the four-note (hoo-hoo-hoo-hooaw) communication call of the spotted owl can be used against them. These curious owls immediately respond and fly towards what they think is a visiting bird. This is a simple way for biologists to survey the species. Unfortunately, it is also a way for human enemies to find and dispatch an animal they feel threatens their livelihood. A biologist in Washington found two spotted owl fledglings bludgeoned to death near his survey area in 1989 (Barrett 56). The northern spotted owl has the unfortunate distinction of being a species that can only survive in old-growth forests. These charming birds are restricted enough in their habitat requirements to be used to indicate the overall health of old growth forests. The number of owls displays a direct correlation to the ecological condition of the forest.

The health of an ecosystem can be judged by indicator species. The northern spotted owl is a prime example of an indicator species. These species help researchers determine what other flora and/or fauna--that utilize the same restricted habitat--are at risk . At least 118 known vertebrate species are known to live primarily in old-growth forest. Forty-one of these species cannot nest, breed, or forage anywhere else. The problem with second-growth commercial forests is that they are managed monocultures (single species plantations which contain trees that were all planted at the same time). These areas do not offer the same habitat diversity for plants and animals. For example, only nine mammal species make their home in second-growth forests of young firs, compared to twenty-five species that inhabit old-growth forests (Swindle 1). Spotted owl protection efforts benefit all old-growth dependent species. Extinction is permanent.

A global crisis of extinction is occurring according to Harvard ecologist E.O. Wilson (qtd. in. Postlethwait 767). The current level of extinctions is only surpassed by the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago. No one has a crystal ball that can predict which extinction will cause environmental disaster. President Richard Nixon said when he signed the Endangered Species Act, “Nothing is more priceless than the rich array of animal life with which our country has been blessed. It is a many-faceted treasure.” (qtd. in Watkins 37). The diversity of life on earth blesses us all.

There are many reasons for protecting the spotted owl. Many conservationists find human quality of life and economic sustenance good reasons for protecting animals. One can certainly recognize these issues as valid, but moral considerations also exist. All animals and plants were created or evolved to provide a unique and diverse planet. Religious leaders have begun a new movement based on the biblical passages concerning Noah and the Ark. A biblical verse in the states, “The Lord said to Noah, ‘Come into the ark . . . Take with you seven pairs, male and female, of all beasts . . . also take with you seven pairs, male and female, of every bird . . . to keep the species alive on the face of all the Earth.’ ”(Gen. 7.1). As a religious argument some say that man is to have dominion over the animals. Dominion does not mean destruction. If we annihilate all living things then we are very poor stewards. Earth has room for all of its creatures.

Protecting the old-growth ecosystem helps to preserve the balance of life on earth. By saving the spotted owl, we are enriched. Humankind has a unique and weighty responsibility because of the ability to manipulate the environment. If we are going to take on such a huge responsibility, then possibly our biggest challenge is to learn to control the destructive behavior our own species.

Works Cited

Beuter, John. “A Different Spin.” American Forests Jan./Feb. 1995: 14-15.

Foreman, Dave. Confessions of an Eco-Warrior. New York: Harmony, 1991.

Gore, Al. Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit. New York: Houghton, 1992.

Helvarg, David. “Red Herring of the Wise Use Movement.” Progressive (1 Nov. 1995).  http://www.elibrary.com/cgi.bin. (6 June 1996).

Little, Charles E. The Dying of the Trees. New York: Viking, 1995.

Miller, G. Tyler. Environmental Science. 5^th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth, 1995.

Postlethwait, John, and Janet Hopson. The Nature of Life. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw, 1992.

Robinson, Gordon. The Forest and the Trees: A Guide to Excellent Forestry. Washington D.C.: Island Press, 1988.

Seideman, David. “Out of the Woods.” Audubon July/Aug. 1996: 66-75.

Shanks, Bernard. California Wildlife. Helena: Falcon, 1989.

Swindle, Keith. “Re: spotted owl old-growth - definitive answer from an expert.” Online posting. Dpaulson@ups.edu.

Thomas, Jack W., et al. A Conservation Strategy for the Northern Spotted Owl. Portland: Interagency Task Force, 1990.

Watkins, T. H., “What’s Wrong With the Endangered Species Act?” Audubon Jan./Feb. 1996: 37-41.